USA Foreign Policy and Intervention Essay Example for Free

USA Foreign Policy and Intervention Essay During the first half of the 1990s, many intervention operations were launched, including in Somalia. In general, their main aim of intervention in Somalia was to alleviate the conflict. Notwithstanding, the instruments that were used to achieve this goal were mainly military. The reaction of the Western military establishment, asked to intervene in armed conflicts in the developing world, has been to look at familiar concepts used in military training and operations (Deutsch 12). It has been argued that their outlook on armed conflict, dominated by Cold War inter-state war thinking, was at the heart of the many difficulties the intervening states faced in these interventions. What has gone wrong in Somalia, what could have been done differently and how to change approach? Answers to these problems range from instituting a different emphasis in the training of soldiers, to reform of the United Nations to deal with armed conflicts. Background and Overview At the beginning of 1992, Mohammed Siad Barre, who had ruled Somalia for two decades, was overthrown. At this time civil war and starvation grasped Somalia. In January of 1992, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution. This resolution called to cease fire a political settlement of the conflict (Duyvesteyn 78). In March this cease-fire went into effect. However, already by August â€Å"as many as 1. 5 million of an estimated Somali population of 6 million were threatened with starvation, with approximately 300,000 Somalis already having died, including roughly 25 percent of all children under the age of five† (Duyvesteyn 80). In April, the Security Council created a modest military operation. However, negotiations with Somali factions detained the implementation of the operation. On July 27, the Security Council voted to airlift food to Somalia, and on August 12 the U. N. announced plans to send 500 troops to protect the international relief effort. On August 14, the White House announced that the United States would take charge of the airlift (Duyvesteyn 90). The 500 troops arrived in September—â€Å"with the support of four U. S. warships carrying 2,100 Marines†Ã¢â‚¬â€but proved unable to do much to protect the relief effort (Duyvesteyn 78). In November, U. N. secretary general Boutros Boutros-Ghali declared the Security Council that the relief measures were not working. On November 26, the Bush administration decided that the United States to send troops to Somalia. For this the Security Council had to pass an authorizing resolution. On December 3 the Security Council passed the resolution. On October 3-4, 1993, eighteen U. S. soldiers were killed and dozens were wounded in a fierce firefight in Mogadishu, Somalia. Their deaths were the direct result of U. S. leadership in a series of United Nations -sanctioned military interventions in Somalia that. With the Cable News Network (CNN) providing almost instantaneous transmission to audiences in the U. S. and abroad, the victorious Somali forces not only paraded a captured U. S. helicopter pilot, Corporal William Durant, through the streets of Mogadishu, but also dragged the naked corpse of a U. S. soldier past mobs of Somali citizens who vented their anger by spitting on, stoning, and kicking the body (Freidman 2). These media images triggered a firestorm of public debate that asked, in the words of one journalist: â€Å"How did an operation that began with American soldiers feeding starving Somalis wind up with an American soldiers corpse being dragged through the streets of Mogadishu by Somalis starving only for revenge? † The visceral response of the American public was to demand an immediate withdrawal of U. S. military forces. â€Å"Its really very simple,† explained Tony Bright, an emergency health care administrator who captured the public wave of protest against any further U. S. involvement in Somalia. â€Å"If I have to choose between pictures of starving Somalian babies or dead American soldiers being dragged through the streets of Mogadishu, well, I dont want to see any more dead Americans. Sorry. Its time to bring the boys home† (Ayres 3). The Somalia case presents a splendid opportunity to examine U. S. decision making in the post-cold war period. The implementation of Operation Restore Hope constituted the first time that the U. S. had supported a peacemaking (as opposed to a peacekeeping) operation under the auspices of the U. N. and without the approval of the sovereign government of the target country. The case is also unique in that the U. S. experience had a negative impact on the way U. S. policy makers perceived the viability of future U. S. involvement in peacemaking operations in Africa and the other regions of the Third World, most notably the U. S. ability to resolve ethnic strife and the practicality of launching joint U. S. -U. N. military operations. High-Level Neglect in the Bush Administration The first phase of U. S. policy lasted from January 1991 to December 1992. In this phase presidential and congressional attention focused mainly on the Gulf War. This phase involved leadership from the traditional foreign policy bureaucracy, especially the State Departments Africa Bureau. The decline of cold war tensions ensured that neither the Somali civil war nor the impending overthrow of the Siad regime attracted the ongoing attention of the White House, despite the fact that President Bush had to authorize the emergency evacuation of U. S. embassy personnel in Mogadishu. Humanitarian Crisis and Military Intervention under Bush In the late fall of 1992, the second phase of U. S. policy began. It involved high-level attention to what was perceived to be an accelerating crisis in Somalia. Images of a humanitarian disaster displayed daily in practically every media outlet. Congressional and public criticism was increasing. White House attention focused on Somalia shortly after the 1992 election. As a consequence of high-level White House reviews in November 1992, President Bush and his top advisers devised a plan to deal with the events in Somalia. In sharp contrast to the limited objectives associated with Operation Provide Relief, Bush announced on December 4, 1992, that his administration was prepared to lead a massive multilateral military operation to â€Å"create a secure environment† for the distribution of famine relief aid. Five days later the first contingent of U. S. troops led by three teams of navy SEALS (sea-air-land commandos) landed on the beaches of Mogadishu and secured the airport and the port. The U. S. military operation popularly was referred to as Operation Restore Hope and known in U. N. circles as the United Task Force (UNITAF). The operation was sanctioned by U. N. Security Council Resolution 794. In the weeks that followed, over 38,000 foreign troops from twenty countries (including approximately 25,000 U. S. military personnel) occupied various cities and towns throughout central and southern Somalia. The troops began the task of opening food supply routes, as well as creating distribution networks. The UNITAF ground forces were under the direct command of Lieutenant General Robert Johnston, chief of staff to General Norman Schwarzkopf during Operation Desert Storm, who reported to General Joseph P. Hoar, commander of the U. S. Central Command (CENTCOM) (Scott 65).

Comparing Nuclear Energy To Other Energies Sources Environmental Sciences Essay

Comparing Nuclear Energy To Other Energies Sources Environmental Sciences Essay This report contains information on five different types of energy sources. It is a literature study that compares two renewable (solar and wind) sources and two non-renewable (coal and natural gas) sources to nuclear energy. The comparison is based on factors such as usage, cost (both capital costs and running costs), safety and stability, storage of waste and the impact on the environment. The sources are individually compared to nuclear energy. In the comparisons only the factors relevant to the two energy sources being compared at any given time are considered factors are not repeated in the comparison. It also looks at whether the medias portrayal of the dangers of nuclear energy is accurate or whether it overestimates the dangers involved in producing nuclear power. The aim of the report was to determine the viability of nuclear energy as a source of power to support electricity needs of the population in the future. This is a literature study addressing the portrayal of nuclear energy by the media and its viability as an energy source in comparison to other methods of generating electricity. The report compares Nuclear energy to energy generated by coal, natural gases, wind and the sun (i.e. solar energy). The energy types are individually compared to Nuclear energy. Each section highlights specific problems and advantages associated with Nuclear energy as it relates to the energy to which it is being compared. Factors taken into consideration include the costs involved with the various types of energy, how much it is being used globally, impact on the environment, storage of waste, safety and stability. The report was written to meet the requirements laid down by JSQ216, a second year engineering subject at the University of Pretoria. The report was completed by allocating each of the four group members a specific energy to research and compare to nuclear energy. The research was then completed by using journal articles, books, internet sites and approaching two engineers about the problem. The information was processed, the reliability of the sources assessed and a short portion of the report was generated by each group member. All four parts were then put together for the final report. Figure 1: Break down of solar energy[2]The sun has been around since the beginning of time but only recently has it been used as a source of renewable energy. Approximately 120000 TW of solar energy is absorbed by the Earths surface which is equal to 10000 times the total global demand for energy. Only 0.1% of this energy would be required to satisfy the worlds present consumption of fuels.[1] There are three main ways to harness the suns energy. These include solar cells which convert sunlight directly into electricity. Solar water heating where heat from the sun is used to heat water inside panels on roof tops. And lastly solar furnaces that make use of mirrors to concentrate the suns energy into a small space to produce high temperatures. As illustrated by figure 1. There are close to 440 nuclear power plants in the world today which supply 16% of the worlds energy demand, however only 1% is useable energy with the rest being nuclear waste. If 1% of the area where there is recoverable energy utilised solar energy devices all the worlds energy needs could be met with solar energy alone. If 10% of the area were to be utilised then in two years the electricity produced would be equal to all known reserves of fossil fuels.[1] Cost problems with solar energy are the high capital costs involved in the installation of solar panels which can be very expensive. The need to store energy because of solar availability due to factors such as time of day and weather conditions is also costly. Countries at higher altitudes with daily cloud cover will have an economic disadvantage due to long distance transfer of energy. Maintenance of panels also has to be considered. Nuclear energy is presently cheaper than solar power however the construction of the facilities and the disposal of radioactive waste is costly and can affect the environment.[3] Solar power is relatively safe to use as long as you do not look directly into the suns rays or come into contact with hot solar panels. In the case of nuclear power it is also safe to use as the nuclear reactors are equipped with redundant systems to make sure there is no nuclear meltdown. This makes it a very stable energy source. Nuclear energy starts to get more dangerous in the form of spent fuel rods and radioactive waste. Even though nuclear energy is reliable and stable as a whole, when something does go wrong it can become very serious and very dangerous. Solar energy does not have any form of waste as replaced panels and components can be reused or recycled. Nuclear energy has two types of waste products, the spent fuel rods which if not stored properly in pools of water to cool down could become very unstable. The other form is radioactive gasses and other waste products that if released into the atmosphere can pose various risks. Solar energy produces no waste or pollution. Waste from nuclear power must be sealed and stored underground for long periods of time. This waste must be kept safe from external factors and from human contact in order to prevent a threat. Such a threat is currently under way at the Fukushima Daiichi power plant in Japan where a pool of spent fuel rods caught fire this year. Solar power is a renewable power source therefore it is environmentally friendly. It is silent and requires no fuel therefore there is no pollution. It even decreases the amount of harmful green house gasses. Although there are many advantages to solar energy there is still the fact that a large amount of panels is required to produce the needed electricity. This becomes very costly. It is reliable and has no risks that are associated with nuclear energy. Nuclear energy on the other hand is not a renewable source and if not handled in the correct way could impact the environment in a negative way. Even though it does not contribute to global warming like other fossil fuels, the waste gasses it does produce could potentially cause radioactive sicknesses and cancer in humans and other life forms. A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of solar and nuclear energy can be found in the tables below Table 1: Advantages of Solar and Nuclear Energy Solar Energy Nuclear Energy Renewable energy source Does not emit green house gasses Has no volatile waste Plenty of resources available Once panels are in place the energy is free Cheaper than solar power Table 2: Disadvantages of Solar and Nuclear Energy Solar Energy Nuclear Energy Does not work at night Radioactive waste Currently very expensive Long-term storage required for waste products Requires big fields in order to harvest a suitable amount of energy Some reactors produce plutonium which can be used to make nuclear weapons All around the world we require every energy source that we can get including nuclear. All energy sources have both pros and cons. Even though nuclear energy is portrayed as an unstable source of energy it is in fact one of the most reliable and stable types in the world today. The downside is in its waste that if treated incorrectly could land in the hands of terrorists. In the next 20 years there will be emerging economies throughout the globe that will require low cost, environmentally friendly alternative energy sources and Nuclear power is expected to satisfy this demand. Wind Energy Wind power is the generation of electricity through the use of wind to spin turbines, which in turn, convert the winds kinetic energy into electricity. [1] The process of using wind as a power source has been in use throughout history from around the 12th century where windmills were used to mill grain. [2] Wind power generation uses wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power and wind pumps for pumping water. [2] It is a renewable energy source that not many countries have attempted to develop. Wind Power Worldwide June 2010 [3] Country Capacity (MW) USA 36.3 China 33.8 Germany 26.4 Spain 19.5 India 12.1 Rest of the World 46.9 Total 175.00Table 3: Wind Power Worldwide June 2010 In June 2010, The World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) published that 5 countries alone accounted for approximately 73% of the worlds total wind energy production namely USA, China, Germany, Spain and India. [3] Figure 2: World Electricity Production 2008 On the other hand, nuclear energy production seems to be far more popular in a lot of countries with some countries such as the USA and France having no less than 104 and 59 nuclear reactors in operation respectively [4] in early 2010. A study done in 2008 to find the percentage of each type of energy that is globally produced showed that wind forms part of only 2.8% whereas nuclear energy accounts for 13.4% of the worlds total power. The main disadvantage of wind power is the unreliability of the wind itself. In most areas the winds strength is too low to spin a turbine. However, if wind energy were to be used in unison with solar and/or geothermal energy it could be developed into a stable and reliable source of power. The wind turbines themselves are quite safe with only a few reported cases worldwide of damaged blades caused by bad weather, none of which has resulted in any known injuries. [5] Nuclear reactor plants make use of radioactive materials to generate electricity. The idea that these materials could become unstable and get out of control is one of the main concerns (along with radiation poisoning) for countries producing nuclear energy. The Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986 lead to better, more efficient protocols being put into practice leaving most countries to believe that they are now better prepared to handle any destabilizing of the nuclear materials. [6] Nonetheless, wind energy remains theoretically a lot safer than nuclear plants even with all the safety precautions they take. The consequences are much higher for a nuclear disaster than for a wind turbine failure. Wind turbines do not emit any waste products as they do not burn any sort of fossil fuels or radioactive materials, so there is no concern over where to store or dispose of emissions safely- unlike nuclear energy. The radioactive materials (like Uranium and Plutonium) that are used up in nuclear power plants continue to produce dangerous radiation for thousands of years after they have been used up as a fuel for nuclear energy. The most effective way to store these depleted materials has not yet been found but for now they are being kept in underground storage pools where they will not be harmful to anybody. [7] The initial setups of both wind turbines and nuclear power plants are quite costly. But once built, wind turbines are cheaper to maintain than the power plants, but they are both relatively cheaper to maintain than their fossil fuel counterparts with the nuclear materials lasting a very long time and with wind being a free resource to be used. Environmental Impact: Both wind and nuclear energy as it is being produced, is friendly to the surrounding environment (except in the tragic case where radiation is leaked from the power plant). However, wind turbines do make more noise than the power plants which is disruptive to any locals staying near the turbines. [8] The amount of space that a wind turbine takes is less than that of an average nuclear power plant and the disruption to the environment during construction is worse for the power plants because they take so much longer to be built. [8] Coal Energy Coal, the most abundant and affordable of the fossil fuels (1), is a non-renewable energy source. It has been used as a source of energy for thousands of years and has numerous important uses such as in electricity generation, steel and cement manufacture, and industrial process heating. Coal often proves to be the only alternative when low-cost, cleaner energy sources are unable to meet the growing energy demand faced with today (1). Fossil fuels are formed from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and animals that have undergone changes due to heat and pressure over millions of years. The process is still taking place today but the rate of energy storage is small. The annual biomass production stored this way represents only around 0.001% of the current world energy use (2). Even though charcoal can be made artificially, it is not possible to produce it at the rate of consumption (3). Therefore, coal is regarded as a non-renewable energy source and is bound to get depleted. According to BPs (British Petroleum) Statistical Review of World Energy 2010, there is a estimated 826001 million tons of proven coal reserves worldwide, or 119 years reserves-to-production ratio(length of time that the remaining coal reserves would last if production were to continue at the previous years rate )(4). However, compared to other fossil fuels, coal reserves are the largest ones and are more evenly distributed worldwide. Nuclear energy is also a non-renewable source as it is reliant upon a finite source of fuel that can be exhausted. Although, the worlds known uranium resources increased by 15% in two years to 2007 owing to increased mineral exploration The uranium (and sometimes plutonium) used in nuclear power is a natural resource and is a common metal found in rocks all over the world. The World Nuclear Association suggested that there is approximately (13) 160 years of supply at todays rate of consumption. Coal is mainly used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat. The coal is usually pulverized and then combusted in a furnace with a boiler for the generation of electricity. The steam which results from the combustion is then used to spin turbines, which drives the generators thus creating electricity. When coal is heated at approximately 1000 degrees Celsius in an airless environment, Coke is produced. The Coke is then used is used to smelt iron ore for the production of steel. A by-product of this heating is Coal gas, which is a composition of methane and hydrogen, is produced. Coal gas was used for residential lighting and cooking in the 1940s; but it was very costly and so it was stopped. However, in recent times, these gasification processes are being developed to be more cost effective and so coal gas is often used as fuel for engines. Nuclear power plants create electricity through a process called fission in which subatomic particles called neutrons split uranium atoms, producing tremendous amounts of energy. The result of the fission of these large atoms is the creation of smaller atoms and radiation. The energy produced is then absorbed by water which heats it and so stream is produced. The steam is then used to spin turbines as in the case with coal power plants. According to the Key World Energy Statistics 2010 (5), 27% of the worldwide energy demand was fulfilled by coal in 2009.Coal was the second largest source of energy followed by Oil supplying 33.2%. China is a major producer with coal with coal always playing a dominant role in its primary energy consumption. China consumed a high 46,9% of the coal supplied and produced the most coal (45,6%) according to the BP Statistical World Energy Review 2010. World primary energy demand is expected to continue to grow steadily, as it has over the last two decades According to the International Energy Outlook 2010 (an assessment by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) of the outlook for international energy markets through 2035), world consumption of coal increases by 56% over the next two decades(6). Nuclear energy supplies the world 5.8% of the worlds consumption which is less than a quarter of what coal supplies. This is expected as there are only 442 operable nuclear power stations world-wide, the first one being created about 50 years ago which is relatively recent. The extraction of coal involves two types of mining: surface (strip) mining and underground mining. Surface mining involves the removal of coal deposits close to earths surface whereas underground mining is removing deposits found hundreds of meters below the earths surface. Underground mining accounts to approximately 60% of the worlds coal production (7) and requires the creation of shafts and tunnels that are dug in to the coal layers. There have been numerous tragic occurrences in the history of coal mining as it is a very risky business and devastating accidents occur in all countries that produce commercial quantities of this mineral. Most mining accidents occur as a result of cave-ins, methane explosions, mine wall failures, vehicle collisions or the flooding of the mine shafts. Also suffocation, gas poisoning, respiratory ailments (mainly Black Lung Disease) were common. Over 100,000 miners have dies over the past century in coal-mining accidents in the U.S (2nd largest producers of coal) only (8). However, most of these risks have been reduced in present-day mines owing to modern technology and health and safety acts setting stricter standards. Nevertheless, in lesser developed countries and some developing countries, continue to experience significant numbers of mining fatalities each year. The abundance of coal makes it easily accessible and the use of cheaper modes of transportation makes this resource an inexpensive form of energy when compared to energies such as solar, wind or hydro. It is also slightly cheaper than the costs involved in producing nuclear energy. When comparing the economics in producing energy from these two sources, it is important to consider several different types costs associated with both coal and nuclear energy. This includes costs associated with the fuel used in the production of energy which tend to be lower in a nuclear plant even though more intricate steps are involved in the production of the fuel assemblies used in the reactors. Transportation costs are, however, high for coal because a significantly large amount of coal is needed to generate the same energy as with the nuclear fuel. The capital costs are the costs associated with the initial construction of the plant and the modifications forms an important part when comparing the costs. For a nuclear plant, these costs are usually higher than for any other energy forms as the buildings used for containment or the safety-related equipment need to meet higher standards than those met by traditional coal plants. On the other hand, coal plants are required to include scrubbers to remove airborne pollutants as a result of the burning of the coal. Another consideration is the operation and maintenance costs involved. These are the costs involved in the day-to-day operation of the coal and nuclear plants. This includes labour costs, material costs, government fees and property taxes. It is found that the costs are very similar in both the plants. The costs associated with the by-product waste should also be taken into account. For a coal plants, this is the coal ash and for a nuclear plant, these costs include a charge levied by the government for ultimate storage of the high level waste. This charge is a flat fee based on energy use. The waste costs for nuclear energy is considerably higher than the costs for coal plants. Thus, the costs involved in producing coal and nuclear energy are roughly the same (9). The burning of coal is known to contribute to global warming, and is linked to environmental and health issues such as acid rain, smog and asthma owing to the particulate emissions that are emitted from power stations. According to the World Health Organisation, it is estimated that air pollution kills more than 2 million people annually (10). Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2, a greenhouse gas which causes global warming and climate change in the air (11). Strip mining causes large areas of land to be temporarily disturbed and this causes soil erosion and impacts on local biodiversity as after the land has been scraped and quarried for coal, it is usually abandoned. The waste after coal has been combusted is often disposed of in landfills or surface impoundments, which are lined with compacted clay soil and a plastic sheet. As rain filters through the toxic ash pits over years, the toxic metals are leached out into the local environment. Coal sludge i s the liquid coal waste generated by washing coal and is known to contain toxins, and so leaks or spills can pollute underground and surface waters. (12) Natural Gas Energy The Natural Gas used in power production is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas made primarily of methane and other hydrocarbons (including ethane, propane, butanes and pentanes). It also contains carbon dioxide, helium, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen, in smaller quantities. Natural gas is a molecular compound with Van Der Waal attraction between its molecules[1]. It has a boiling point of -161oC and is stable at a wide variety of temperatures and pressures[1]. Natural gas is transported in its liquid form as it taken up 600 times less space as a liquid than it does as a gas and weighs 55% less than the same volume of water. It is a result of the decomposition of plants and animals and is found in pockets beneath the earth and ocean. Natural gas is an important source of power in the modern world. According to Makogen (2010:49) if we were to use 17 to 20% of the worlds natural gas resources, we would be able to provide the world with energy for 200 years. Although it currently only accounts for 20% of the worlds energy, the demand is expected to increase substantially over the next 20 years. It is a cleaner fuel source than any other fossil fuel[2] emitting nearly no sulphur dioxide and far less carbon dioxide and NHx than either oil or coal. Natural gases can also be used in conjunction with other power generation methods, such as biomass[3], to produce energy which will change the amount of pollutants emitted. Nuclear stations do not produce the same pollutants as fossil fuels do but waste management remains the primary concern in nuclear technology. The waste products of a nuclear station are isotopes with extremely long half-lives. The storage of these waste products means creating a safe storage space that needs to last longer than all the human civilisations combined. There are three different levels of nuclear waste, high level, medium level and low level. Low level waste is not very dangerous and disposing of it is not a problem. The danger comes in with high level radioactive waste. The waste is encased in concrete drums and buried up to a kilometre and a half into the ground[5]. However, high level radioactive waste cannot be stored near any other high level radioactive waste as it will interact with the other waste. It is also important to find stable ground in which to store the waste, as concrete can crack and break in the event of an earthquake or tremor. South Africa is one of the safer places to store nuclear waste as it has a geologically stable countryside. Some areas, like the northern Karoo, have experienced about 30 000 years of stability. In between the removal of the waste from use and the final storage of the waste it needs to be left to soak in water for a period of time, to get rid of some of the residual radiation. In this time the fuel rods need to be safely guarded as the waste products are used in the creation of dirty bombs and nuclear bombs. A dirty bomb is a normal bomb containing high level radioactive waste and is detonated above a city, allowing the radioactive particles to contaminate the water supply in addition to other damage. [5]Plutonium, one of the waste products of a nuclear power station, is a primary component in atom bombs and the rods often have to be processed to remove all plutonium before they can be disposed. The use to which the waste products can be used also means that measures need to be taken in ensuring that any country with a nuclear power station does not use the waste in a nuclear weapons program. It also leaves a country more vulnerable to nuclear attack as should a dirty or atom bomb land near a nuclear station the products of the two would react with each other, compounding damage. The waste from a nuclear station can be greatly reduced by the correct management of the station but it still remains a serious threat. Cold fusion could theoretically produce energy without radioactive waste but experiments with cold fusion have produced very little energy, not even enough to power a light bulb. Cold fusion is also regarded as a scam by many scientists and has the same notoriety as perpetual motion and free energy in many scientific circles[9]. The level of efficiency of natural gas as a power source is, however, very much dependent on the technology used to produce the power. In a comparison of different technologies[4] it was found that Natural Gas combined cycle technology was the most efficient of the Natural Gas technologies. The technologies were compared based on efficiency, capital costs, maintenance costs, the service life and electricity costs (calculated based on the cost of the fuel, the maintenance costs, capital cost and service life). The capital costs of the combined cycle technology were just over à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬500 with an expected maintenance cost of less than à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬0.005 per kilo Watt hour and a service life of 20 years (i.e. the time the plant operates before equipment needs to be replaced.) A nuclear station has to replace its one third of its fuel rods annually[5] Comparatively, a nuclear stations capital costs are higher than any other fuel source[6] but they produce electricity at a very low cost which offsets the initial high cost. This can be seen in figure 2, below, which shows a comparison of the cost to generate energy for various technologies. The cost of power from a nuclear plant also tends to remain stable[7] even if the cost of uranium varies as up top 75% of the fuel cost in a nuclear plant is to cover the start-up cost. On the other hand, natural gas prices are very dependent on the supply and so prices tend to vary. Natural gas is also subject to carbon taxes in some countries because of its emissions, which reduces its cost efficiency. Figure 3: Cost of Energy Generation for Different Technologies Location also plays a very important role in determining whether or not natural gas or nuclear energy is the most efficient solution of a country. A country that is abundant in fossil fuels and does not pay carbon taxes would find that natural gas was a far more suitable technology. However, when it becomes necessary to import natural gases, the supply security of the plant becomes compromised and it Nuclear may be a more financially viable option. Both Nuclear and Natural Gas sources have the advantages of being able to supply on demand. Most renewable energy resources are offered on an as-available basis[8]. This means that you do not need to run a coal station alongside a nuclear station in case it does not produce enough energy to meet demand. Conclusion Media is incorrect in portrayal, too extreme but still not safe Waste disposal is dangerous, careful consideration as to storage facilities Safety, security Vulnerability to nuclear attack

Eccentric Artists and Mad Scientists Essay -- Biology Essays Research

Creativity and Irrational Forces: Eccentric Artists and Mad Scientists "Men have called me mad, but the question is not yet settled, whether madness is or is not the loftiest intelligence--whether much that is glorious--whether all that is profound--does not spring from disease of thought--from moods of mind exalted at the expense of the general intellect. Those who dream by day are cognizant of many things which escape those who dream only by night" - Edgar Allen Poe "Imagination is more important than knowledge" - Albert Einstein Is creative genius somehow woven together with "madness"? According to the dictionary, "to create" is "to bring into being or form out of nothing." Such a powerful, mysterious, and seemingly impossible act must surely be beyond the scope of scientific inquiry. No wonder creativity has for so long been "explained" as the expression of an irrational, intuitive psychic "underground" teaming with forces (perhaps divine) that are unknown and unknowable (at least to the "sane," rational mind). The ancient Greeks believed creative inspiration was achieved through altered states of mind such as "divine madness." Socrates said: "If a man comes to the door of poetry untouched by the madness of the muses, believing that technique alone will make him a good poet, he and his sane compositions never reach perfection, but are utterly eclipsed by the inspired madman" (8). Creative inspiration - particularly artistic inspiration -- has often been thought to require the sampling of dark "depths" of ir rationality while maintaining at least some connection to everyday reality. This dive into underground forces "reminds one of a skin-diver with a breathing tube" wrote Arthur Koestler in his influential book... ...ay.html 15) Divergent thinking - J.P. Guilford , Guilford 's divergent production operation identifies a number of different types of creative abilities. http://www.cll.wayne.edu/isp/drbowen/CRTVYW99/Guilford.htm 16) The Gift of Saturn: Creativity and Psychopathology -- Antonio Preti , Antonio Preti, MD; Paola Miotto, MD CMG, Psychiatry branch via Costantinopoli 42, 09129 Cagliari, Italy http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/serendipia/Serendipia-Preti.html 17) Circadian Rhythms Factor in Rapid- Cycling Bipolar Disorder by Ellen Leibenluft , M.D. Psychiatric Times May 1996 Vol. XIII Issue 5 http://www.mhsource.com/edu/psytimes/p960533.jhtml?_requestid=612579 18) Creativity and unpredictability -- Margaret Boden , http://shr.stanford.edu/shreview/4-2/text/boden.html 19) Famous Quotes - Einstein , http://stripe.colorado.edu/~judy/einstein/famous.html

Impacts Upon Skinclads Business in the Next Five Years Essay -- Busin

Impacts Upon Skinclad's Business in the Next Five Years In order to analyse the operating environment of Skinclad, an audit of the performance of the organisation was executed. This took the form of an environmental scan which assessed the internal and external environment of the company. The findings of this scan will provide an understanding and appreciation of the many factors impacting directly or indirectly upon the company’s operations. The report explores the macro and micro environmental factors which are likely to impact upon Skinclad’s business over the next five years, reviews the internal factors, existing marketing mix and highlights possible problems areas. The Swot analysis lists the main strength of the business, its weakness and likely threats and opportunities the company may face in the future. Finally, the report identifies recommendations and possible options for improving production and the financial viability of Skinclad. MACRO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS PEST ANALYSIS A1 A PEST analysis is an environmental scan of the macro economic factors impacting on the operations of an organisation. It analyses the following factors and its relation to the UK Textile industry: * Political * Economical * Social * Technological The relevance of this analysis is significant in gauging world trends and its consequent role in influencing social, cultural, technological, demographical and economical factors. The analysis notes with interest the current state of the UK Textile industry which has experienced a slump since the late 1990 (Figure 1). The figure shows that total output had declined significantly over the period and production has collapsed by 30%. This may be attributed to the effect of globalisation and a shift to importing clothing from cheaper Asian markets such as Philippines, Indonesia and Bangladesh. Many local manufacturers were affected by this move. A case in point was Marks and Spencer who were committed to local producers until the early 2000 when they were forced to source garments from cheaper suppliers outside of the UK to compete with the influx of European retailers. The establishment of the European Union and institution of the Euro dollar has further exacerbated the situation for local producers as a strong UK currency ( £) has made exports more costly to other regions in the Eur... ...shion Shared Values Ø This is not applicable to the case Sustainable Competitive Advantage Ø Has been in existence for over twenty two year Ø Developed an establish network that includes, suppliers, retailers Appendix 4 ========== 8 P’s Product * Jackets and full-length coats in twenty different styles Place * Old dilapidated building in the old textile industry main district Price * Basic assumption that product is high priced since product is high quality Promotion ========= * This information was not provided in the case. However, the need for promotion may be limited as there is a direct link to a retailer who purchase the majority of the product Profit * Profit has been eroded over the years with a net value of  £1 on certain product Physical * Old rented premises in what used to be the hub of the UK textile industry Process * This information was not available from the case People - Not accessible from case Appendix 5 ---------- Ansoff Matrix existing products new products Existing Markets Market Penetration Product Development New Markets Market Development Diversification

Validity: External, Internal, and Construct Essay -- Business Manageme

Validity In research paradigm, validity and reliability are the most basic characteristic issues used in qualitative and quantitative analysis. Validity as a psychometric standard is embedded in a positivist approach, which is relevant in reflecting on the qualitative point of view ascribed to the establishment of the truth. In view of this, definition of positivism ascribe to a theory systematic to validity. Additionally, other empirical conceptions culminating from resided validity include truth, deduction, universal laws, evidence, reason, and actuality among others. For any qualitative research conducted, validity as a concept is a determinant that measures the truth concerning the investigation. Validity is measured by researchers by asking questions and answers are retrieved from other people’s research work (Joppe, 2000, p. 1). Other researchers define validity in quantitative research as construct validity. Construct implies initial concept, hypothesis, notion or question determining data gathered and method of data collection. However, quantitative practitioners affirm the cause or effect interplay between data and construct for validation of investigation by applying test procedures or processes (Golafshani, 2003, p. 599). As a result, with regard to validity, researchers conclude that, it is whether measurements of the mean are accurate or they are measuring the intended features. Accuracy of the mean helps in relating the cause-and-effect relationship present in internal validity. The above definition is associated with quantitative research methodology. It summarizes that validity to be the extent in which instruments measure the exact thing it purports to measure. An example of validity in research is ... ...nformation provided during the course of study. In the case of project construction management, leaders need to be aware of the variables affecting internal and external validity to be able to convince the readers on aspects introduced and needing further research. References Creswell, J. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory into Practice, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 124-131. Cozby, P & Bates, C. (2012). Methods in behavioral research. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research. The Qualitative Report 8 (4), 597-607. Scandura, T & Williams, E. (2000). Research Methodology in Management: Current Practices, Trends and Implications for Future Research. Academy of Management Journal 43 (6), 1248-1264. Trochim, W., & Donnelly, J. (2008). Chapters 1, 3, 5, 6, 7

Zheng He or Christopher Columbus?

who was the greatest explorer Christopher Columbus or Zheng He? Tristan Stanchfield A great explorer in my mind requires being a visionary thats willing to pursue his goal despite the challenges faced, supported by high risk undertakings where the winnings are all or nothing, set on the uncertain future with a non back looking persona. That, and if the outcome is great is what my judging is based on. Zheng He, originally named Ma He, was born into a Muslim family just beyond the borders of China (later Yunnan Province in the southwestern part of China) in 1371.In 1402, after Emperor Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty ascended the throne, he dispatched Zheng He and Wang Jinghong to lead a giant fleet to the Western Sea (today's Southeast Asia), carrying members of soldiers and large quantity of goods. The fleet reached the countries of Southeast Asia, east Africa and Arabia, initiating a feat in the history of navigation and regarded as an unprecedented great historical period in Chinese hi story of trade and cultural exchanges. He led his fleet to voyage to the Western Sea for seven times.The number of ships of his fleet was from 40 to 63 each time, taking many soldiers and sailors on the voyage, with a total party over 27,000 people. and also took with him ships almost four-hundred feet long. Explorer and navigator Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa, Italy. His first voyage into the Atlantic Ocean in 1476 nearly cost him his life. (attacked by french privateers). In 1492, Columbus left Spain in the Santa Maria, with the Pinta and the Nina along side in search of a new trade route to Asia.Instead he sailed West and discovered America, and has been credited for the colonization of America also. in my opinion the greatest explorer was christopher columbus. this was because he was he founded America, and this took the high risk of sailing across the north atlantic ocean which he acomplished. Then he made several more voyages back and fourth fr om europe and America trading goods also at the same time creating colonies in the new world we live in today known as the United states of America. cites: iphone siri, http://www. biography. com/people/christopher-columbus-9254209, wikipedia. com.

Naked Economics Essay

DOCTORAL WRITING TIPS: PLEASE READ-IMPORTANT-HINT, HINT, HINT Please use the tips below and I am almost certain you will get a much better grade, create very polished, doctoral-level papers, and will have a MUCH easier time on your proposal/project/dissertation as these items are REQUIRED. 1. Do not use too many direct quotes — in academia there is an emphasis put on being able to read, assimilate, and paraphrase thus the use of direct quotes is really an academic no-no in most cases. Just to give you an example, in a paper of about 10 pages I would expect to see no more than one or two direct quotes–if at all. Use direct quotes only where you need to emphasize something that is unique and requires an exact replay of whatever it is that you are trying to say. This being said, keep yourself out of harm’s way and avoid the use of direct quotes as much as possible. 2. All ‘statements of fact’ MUST be cited in your paper. All citations noted within the body of your paper, slides, tables, charts or graphs, should also have corresponding full references in the back of your paper in the References section. Only items that are cited in your paper should appear in the reference section. No other items should ever be in the reference section unless they were already cited in your paper. 3. Read all assignments VERY carefully. Too many times I see students lose valuable points as they read their assignment one time and start writing. Most of the time when this is done, critical requirements are missed, resulting in many lost points and a greatly reduced grade. 4. If you must use direct quotes (which again, should be infrequently at best), you absolutely positively MUST have a page number or paragraph number (if it is a non-paginated website). This is not only an APA regulation but one that will also help you avoid a charge of plagiarism. This is VERY serious so please take note. 5. Do not use sources that are ancient unless it is truly a section using historical background. Recently I saw a student paper where they were citing current sources and then jumped in and cited a source from 1948 . . . and it was not a historical section!! This was merely an irrelevant and ancient reference that should not have been included in that paper. 6. If a central point was noted in your requirements for the assignment, make sure that you cover that exact point,  making direct reference to it, citing it, and of course including a corresponding reference in the reference section. Example if you were to compare and contrast a noted author, be sure in your paper that you specifically mention that author, their works, the date of their work, and also make reference to that citation in the Reference section of your paper. 7. If you are making a general statement with a citation, then you would not use a page number or a paragraph number. Only direct quotes that should be used very sparingly would get page and paragraph numbers (Are you getting the idea you should avoid the use of direct quotes 😉 ). Two citations per paragraph and one direct quote per page is a rule of thumb. 8. Be very mindful of the page count and word count that have been provided in the assignment’s details. There is a reason for page and word count — it is a direct clue as to the scope of the paper. Additionally if you are ever planning to publish in a journal, you will be given a very stringent page and/or word count. If the publishers tell you the article is to be 1000 words and instead you write 1001 words, your article will be rejected . . . I am not kidding this is true. In terms of scope, if the paper is to be 750 words clearly your coverage of that topic will be much different than if the paper required 7500 words†¦ page count and word count can be your friend so pay very close attention. Please do not ask the instructor if they are serious about the page and word count . . . needless to say they will say ‘yes’ so do not even ask. Additionally please do not ask for exceptions to the page/word count as there was an intent for this assignment and page and work out was part of that. These assignments are attempting to train you to be a precise and disciplined professional writer. 9. Be sure all papers include an introduction that gives a brief background about your topic but also includes specifically what will be covered in the paper. The word ‘introduction’ should be omitted as a section header. 10. Be sure your paper has a substantive conclusion that summarizes what was included in the paper. Please do not use the conclusion to introduce new information†¦ this is not the place for new information as the conclusion is merely a summary section of what was ALREADY covered in your paper. Ideally, your conclusion should key off the introduction. 11. Do not use contractions. Example: ‘don’t’, ‘I’m’, he’ll’–Additionally, use a scholarly, formal tone in all your papers. Your paper is not to sound like a personal story, journal, magazine  article, letter to a friend, personal diary, or stream of mind writing effort..be Clear, Concise, and Precise in all doctoral writings. 12. Be sure to not use first and second person in all writings. It is entirely possible to write about a personal topic yet not use first person..example (use this style, it works well): This author believes; Research indicates, this researcher posits, experience has shown, etc. 13. Be sure to use APA 6th edition paper formatting, and spacing throughout the entire paper. This means that your paper should be double spaced line-wise throughout. From section to section, do not use extra line spacing in your paper–this includes from your cover to your reference section. 14. Watch your tenses. If you are writing in the current tense, be consistent and stay with the current tense throughout your paper. If you are writing in the future tense be consistent and stick with future tense throughout your paper. If you are writing in the past tense, be consistent and use past tense throughout your entire paper. 15. Be sure all your sentences are complete -no one-word sentences such as ‘Yes’!. Also, be sure each sentence has a subject. Example: He said the dog should go for a walk (WHO SAID?); That research showed interesting results (WHAT RESEARCH)? 16. All paragraphs should have a MINIMUM of 3 sentences. 17. Your doctoral writing should be clear, concise and precise. Avoid wordiness and flowery language. Wordiness and flowery writing is usually a sign that you are lacking substantive content, or are using ‘fillers’ to meet a word requirement, or are lacking knowledge of writing in a scientific/scholarly manner. Do not use fluff/fillers such as ‘the fact of the matter is . . .’ ‘nevertheless’, ‘also . . .’, ‘this being said’ . . . etc. 18. Be sure to carefully proofread your papers. I see many students post papers that literally have errors in their cover page and their introduction†¦ and it usually gets worse from there. Use Microsoft’s built in spell checker-all spelling errors will be underlined in red. Correct all errors. Many times students ask ‘how many times should I proofread a paper’? I tell them, ‘until you no longer find errors, then reread your paper another couple of times’. Do not steal points from yourself — if you took the time to write the paper then take the extra time to proofread it so you do not harm your grade. 19. This class does NOT permit ‘redo’s’, extra credit, incompletes, etc. –so be sure to plan accordingly and do your best work first. 20. Please be sure to make all statements in the affirmative (do not use questions as part of your paper). There is nothing worse than a student that uses a question in the paper, than answers that question. If a paper is well thought out, is well written in a cogent manner, this interrogative approach should never take place..it rather underscores a writing weakness so avoid at all costs. ~~ Remember, the doctoral degree is the highest degree in the land. Have respect for this degree, yourself as an academic scholar and what that means. When you have earned your degree you will be expected to be an authority your area of study so take your work seriously so as not to devalue yourself, your degree and your university. Do your very best work as you will likely run across your faculty members again and again and will also perhaps have them on your doctoral committees, as a chair, member, reader, University reviewer, etc. — set a good impression and do a good job on each and every paper–your classes will bring you topic knowledge, but will almost more importantly provide you the larger research and writing skills you will need to be successful. Be sure to also use the wonderful Writing Center facilities your university has provided as you will find tutorials, templates, tip sheets, links, general info, plagiarism scanners, computerized document proofreaders (in many cases), etc..if you are serious about succeeding in your program, you will definitely want and need to use these resources. Additionally, learn how to become a master at using your university’s online library, its search engines, available periodicals, etc†¦.become familiar with the library staff and how they can be of assistance. You are undertaking a large, serious and fruitful task as a doctoral learner so give yourself every advantage possible. I wish you well in your doctoral journey..it will be the most worthwhile endeavor you have ever undertaken! ~ Dr. Judy